Low-cost 3D printed lenses for brightfield and fluorescence microscopy.

We present the fabrication and implementation of low-cost optical quality 3D printed lenses, and their application as microscope objectives with different prescriptions. The imaging performance of the 3D printed lenses was benchmarked against commercially available optics including a 20 mm focal length 12.7 mm diameter NBK-7 plano-convex lens used as a low magnification objective, and a separate high magnification objective featuring three 6 mm diameter NBK-7 lenses with different positive and negative focal lengths. We describe the design and manufacturing processes to produce high-quality 3D printed lenses. We tested their surface quality using a stylus profilometer, showing that they conform to that of commercial glass counterpart lenses. The 3D printed lenses were used as microscope objectives in both brightfield and epi-fluorescence imaging of specimens including onion, cyanobacteria, and variegated Hosta leaves, demonstrating a sub-cellular resolution performance obtained with low-cost 3D printed optical elements within brightfield and fluorescence microscopy.

Construction and characterisation of a structured, tuneable, and transparent 3D culture platform for soil bacteria.

We have developed a tuneable workflow for the study of soil microbes in an imitative 3D soil environment that is compatible with routine and advanced optical imaging, is chemically customisable, and is reliably refractive index matched based on the carbon catabolism of the study organism. We demonstrate our transparent soil pipeline with two representative soil organisms, Bacillus subtilis and Streptomyces coelicolor, and visualise their colonisation behaviours using fluorescence microscopy and mesoscopy. This spatially structured, 3D approach to microbial culture has the potential to further study the behaviour of bacteria in conditions matching their native environment and could be expanded to study microbial interactions, such as competition and warfare.

A simple image processing pipeline to sharpen topology maps in multi-wavelength interference microscopy.

Multi-wavelength standing wave (SW) microscopy and interference reflection microscopy (IRM) are powerful techniques that use optical interference to study topographical structure. However, the use of more than two wavelengths to image the complex cell surface results in complicated topographical maps, and it can be difficult to resolve the three-dimensional contours. We present a simple image processing method to reduce the thickness and spacing of antinodal fringes in multi-wavelength interference microscopy by up to a factor of two to produce clearer and more precise topographical maps of cellular structures. We first demonstrate this improvement using model non-biological specimens, and we subsequently demonstrate the benefit of our method for reducing the ambiguity of surface topography and revealing obscured features in live and fixed-cell specimens.

Addressing multiscale microbial challenges using the Mesolens.

We provide a brief review of the development and application of the Mesolens and its impact on microbiology. Microbial specimens such as infected tissue samples, colonies surfaces, and biofilms are routinely collected at the mesoscale. This means that they are relatively large multimillimetre-sized samples which contain microscopic detail that must be observed to answer important questions across various sectors. The Mesolens presents the ideal imaging method to study these specimens as no other optical microscope can thanks to its unique combination of low magnification and high numerical aperture providing large field-of-view, high-resolution imaging. We demonstrate the current applications of the Mesolens to microbial imaging and go on to outline the huge potential of the Mesolens to impact other key areas of microbiology.

Intra-colony channel morphology in Escherichia coli biofilms is governed by nutrient availability and substrate stiffness.

Nutrient-transporting channels have been recently discovered in mature Escherichia coli biofilms, however the relationship between intra-colony channel structure and the surrounding environmental conditions is poorly understood. Using a combination of fluorescence mesoscopy and a purpose-designed open-source quantitative image analysis pipeline, we show that growth substrate composition and nutrient availability have a profound effect on the morphology of intra-colony channels in mature E. coli biofilms. Under all nutrient conditions, intra-colony channel width was observed to increase non-linearly with radial distance from the centre of the biofilm. Notably, the channels were around 25% wider at the centre of carbon-limited biofilms compared to nitrogen-limited biofilms. Channel density also differed in colonies grown on rich and minimal media, with the former creating a network of tightly packed channels and the latter leading to well-separated, wider channels with defined edges. Our approach paves the way for measurement of internal patterns in a wide range of biofilms, offering the potential for new insights into infection and pathogenicity.

Pseudonocardia abyssalis sp. nov. and Pseudonocardia oceani sp. nov., two novel actinomycetes isolated from the deep Southern Ocean.

The actinomycetes strains KRD168T and KRD185T were isolated from sediments collected from the deep Southern Ocean and, in this work, they are described as representing two novel species of the genus Pseudonocardia through a polyphasic approach. Despite sharing >99 % 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity with other members of the genus, comparative genomic analysis allowed species delimitation based on average nucleotide identity and digital DNA-DNA hybridization. The KRD168T genome is characterized by a size of 6.31 Mbp and a G+C content of 73.44 mol%, while the KRD185T genome has a size of 6.82 Mbp and a G+C content of 73.98 mol%. Both strains contain meso-diaminopimelic acid as the diagnostic diamino acid, glucose as the major whole-cell sugar, MK-8(H4) as a major menaquinone and iso-branched hexadecanoic acid as a major fatty acid. Biochemical and fatty acid analyses also revealed differences between these strains and their phylogenetic neighbours, supporting their status as distinct species. The names Pseudonocardia abyssalis sp. nov. (type strain KRD168T=DSM 111918T=NCIMB 15270T) and Pseudonocardia oceani (type strain KRD185T=DSM 111919T=NCIMB 15269T) are proposed.

Seeing beyond the limit: A guide to choosing the right super-resolution microscopy technique.

Super-resolution microscopy has become an increasingly popular and robust tool across the life sciences to study minute cellular structures and processes. However, with the increasing number of available super-resolution techniques has come an increased complexity and burden of choice in planning imaging experiments. Choosing the right super-resolution technique to answer a given biological question is vital for understanding and interpreting biological relevance. This is an often-neglected and complex task that should take into account well-defined criteria (e.g., sample type, structure size, imaging requirements). Trade-offs in different imaging capabilities are inevitable; thus, many researchers still find it challenging to select the most suitable technique that will best answer their biological question. This review aims to provide an overview and clarify the concepts underlying the most commonly available super-resolution techniques as well as guide researchers through all aspects that should be considered before opting for a given technique.

Intra-colony channels in E. coli function as a nutrient uptake system.

The ability of microorganisms to grow as aggregated assemblages has been known for many years, however their structure has remained largely unexplored across multiple spatial scales. The development of the Mesolens, an optical system which uniquely allows simultaneous imaging of individual bacteria over a 36 mm2 field of view, has enabled the study of mature Escherichia coli macro-colony biofilm architecture like never before. The Mesolens enabled the discovery of intra-colony channels on the order of 10 µm in diameter, that are integral to E. coli macro-colony biofilms and form as an emergent property of biofilm growth. These channels have a characteristic structure and re-form after total mechanical disaggregation of the colony. We demonstrate that the channels are able to transport particles and play a role in the acquisition of and distribution of nutrients through the biofilm. These channels potentially offer a new route for the delivery of dispersal agents for antimicrobial drugs to biofilms, ultimately lowering their impact on public health and industry.

Three-Dimensional Observations of an Aperiodic Oscillatory Gliding Behavior in Myxococcus xanthus Using Confocal Interference Reflection Microscopy.

The deltaproteobacterium Myxococcus xanthus is a model for bacterial motility and has provided unprecedented insights into bacterial swarming behaviors. Fluorescence microscopy techniques have been invaluable in defining the mechanisms that are involved in gliding motility, but these have almost entirely been limited to two-dimensional (2D) studies, and there is currently no understanding of gliding motility in a three-dimensional (3D) context. We present here the first use of confocal interference reflection microscopy (IRM) to study gliding bacteria, revealing aperiodic oscillatory behavior with changes in the position of the basal membrane relative to the substrate on the order of 90 nm in vitro First, we use a model planoconvex lens specimen to show how topological information can be obtained from the wavelength-dependent interference pattern in IRM. We then use IRM to observe gliding M. xanthus bacteria and show that cells undergo previously unobserved changes in their adhesion profile as they glide. We compare the wild type with mutants that have reduced motility, which also exhibit the same changes in the adhesion profile during gliding. We find that the general gliding behavior is independent of the proton motive force-generating complex AglRQS and suggest that the novel behavior that we present here may be a result of recoil and force transmission along the length of the cell body following firing of the type IV pili.IMPORTANCE 3D imaging of live bacteria with optical microscopy techniques is a challenge due to the small size of bacterial cells, meaning that previous studies have been limited to observing motility behavior in 2D. We introduce the application of confocal multiwavelength interference reflection microscopy to bacteria, which enables visualization of 3D motility behaviors in a single 2D image. Using the model organism Myxococcus xanthus, we identified novel motility behaviors that are not explained by current motility models, where gliding bacteria exhibit aperiodic changes in their adhesion to an underlying solid surface. We concluded that the 3D behavior was not linked to canonical motility mechanisms and that IRM could be applied to study a range of microbiological specimens with minimal adaptation to a commercial microscope.